. . . If I knew what I was doing wrong, I'd be able to look it up.

The questions below are representative of those that we frequently hear from students. Browse the list if you're not sure about the type of corrections you need to make. Our answers include examples as well as references to information in the textbook and links to more information in this handbook that you can consult for further assistance.

GENERAL QUESTIONS

1. What does "awk" mean? It's all over the margins of my papers.

"Awk" is an abbreviated way of indicating that a sentence or passage is awkwardly phrased. A number of problems may contribute to awkward phrasing. The most common include passive constructions (see Chapter 7, pages 247 – 248), weak transitions, and long sentences. Even when they are grammatically and mechanically correct, unnecessarily long sentences may interfere with readers' ability to quickly comprehend meaning. Replace long sentences with two or more short sentences and connecting the ideas with appropriate transitional words and phrases.

2. Sometimes instructors and peer reviewers say my writing isn't clear, that my writing has no clarity. I just don't know what clarity means.

Problems with clarity may be caused by inflated words, redundancies (pairs, modifiers, categories), or indirectness that could be eliminated by combining sentences and/or using active verbs. Also review the textbook discussion about using plain language (Chapter 7, pages 248– 250). Ambiguous references also contribute to problems with clarity. See Question 4 below.

3. Sometimes instructors and peer reviewers say my writing isn't coherent. So, what's coherence? What can I do do make it coherent.

When people comment on coherence, they're usually saying that it's difficult to understand how the ideas in a text or part of a text relate to each other. Readers need writers to provide cues about how information is to be understood. Here are a few writing strategies that will improve coherence:

• You may need to work on the order in which you provide information. Review the discussion of "given-new constructions" in the textbook (Chapter 7, pages 252 – 253).
  
• You may need to check the logic of your arguments. Review the discussion of assessing logic in the textbook (Chapter 7, pages 240 – 245).
  
• You may need to strengthen transitions. Transitional words and phrases provide readers with important cues about relationships among pieces of information.
  
• You may benefit by outlining your document. Even if you prefer to begin writing without outlining, you might benefit by creating an outline from your developing text so that you can quickly review the organization of information and determine where transitions might be added to assist readers.

4. I often get comments about ambiguous references. I'm not sure what I'm doing wrong.

Sometimes references are ambiguous because pronoun-antecedent relationships are unclear or incorrect. Consider the following sentence:

The pharmacist gave the prescription to the customer, explained the medication, and then he paid for it.

Who paid for the prescription, the pharmacist or the customer? Logic suggests the customer paid but the sentence implies that the pharmacist paid. The following revision clarifies who did what:

The pharmacist gave the prescription to the customer and explained the medication. Then the customer paid for it.

Using "this" or "it" to replace words or phrases can also create ambiguous references. Read the following passage through once and then mouse over the highlighted ambiguous references.

In the article “Of Clones and Clowns,” Robert A. Weinberg discusses different types of cloning. He provides examples of each type of cloning and explains how scientists use them. Weinberg stresses that reproductive and therapeutic cloning are two entirely different things . The reason for this is simple—credibility. For reproductive cloning, this has been compromised. Weinberg fears that this will affect the credibility of therapeutic cloning, his area of research. Weinberg has the knowledge and savvy to convince the general public and his peers of the differences between therapeutic and reproductive cloning and show just how ethically out of control this process has become. Once he depicts therapeutic cloning as a desirable technology, Weinberg points out that it’s being blocked by “the newest acts of the circus” (Weinberg, 6). This is referring to the current U.S. administration and its moratorium on stem cell research. He argues that this only worsens the problem of research being done by biotech companies. This seems to conflate facts and politics.

Did you have questions about the references in the passage? How might you revise the passage? Do you even have enough information to revise it? It's likely you don't if you haven't read Weinberg's article. Writers sometimes substitute ambiguous references for complex ideas because it's easier to write "this" (or an equivalent) than to articulate what "this" is. Writers hope that readers will figure out the more complex idea that "this" replaces. But if the writer has problems putting "this" into words, imagine the problems readers have deciphering the meaning. If a reader is to understand what the writer means to convey in the paragraph, the writer needs to replace vague references with more specific words.

In the following revision of the passage, the ambiguous references are corrected. In addition, some of the information has been rearranged.

In the article “Of Clones and Clowns,” Robert A. Weinberg discusses two different types of cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning. He provides examples of both types of cloning, explains how scientists plan to use each, and stresses the significant differences between them. The reason Weinburg makes these distinctions is simple—credibility. According to Weinberg, disreputable research has compromised the credibility of reproductive cloning. Weinberg fears that the failures of reproductive cloning will affect the credibility of therapeutic cloning, his area of research. Consequently he depicts therapeutic cloning as a desirable technology and points out that it’s being blocked by “the newest acts of the circus” (Weinberg, 6). One of the "newest acts" that concerns Weinberg is the current U.S. administration and its moratorium on stem cell research. He argues that the moratorium only threatens legitimate therapeutic cloning research being done by biotech companies. Weinberg has the knowledge and savvy to convince the general public and his peers of the differences between therapeutic and reproductive cloning and to show just how ethically out of control reproductive cloning has become. However, Weinberg's argument seems to conflate facts and politics.

How many instances of the word "this" can you find in the revision? What does that tell you? One strategy you can use to make such a revision is to go through your text and replace every instance of "this" (or "it") with a more specific word choice.

5. My instructors and peer reviewers say my writing is accurate but too dense. What are some good ways to reduce density?

Density results when writers don't attend to readers' needs in the text (for example, given-new structures, definitions and examples, active constructions, and plain language.) Density also results when writers don't consider the

Suggestions about verbal elements

• Separate information into several sentences rather than a few very long
  sentences.
  
• Develop important points in separate paragraphs.
  
• Add examples and explanations to illustrate points.
  
• Use direct diction.
  
• Add transitions within paragraphs and between paragraphs and sections
  of a document.

Suggestions about visual elements

• Use headings and subheadings to identify key sections.
  
• Illustrate objects and concepts to aid understanding.
  
• Use selected visual devices to highlight key ideas: lists, bullets, tables,
  underlining, italics, boldface.

6. My instructors and peer reviewers say that the quotes from sources that I included in my paper can't stand by themselves. But the quotes I select say exactly what I mean, so what else can I say?

More accurately, the materials you select say exactly what your sources mean and you chose the quotes to help you support points you're making in your own text. Selecting appropriate supporting materials requires effective research and a good understanding of how sources relate to your purpose in writing. In addition, readers need writers to contextualize quoted material that supports their points.

The following example passage is part of a report that discusses greenhouse gasses. The headings give you an idea about the topic and direction of the report. We have excerpted one section here. In the first version of the passage, the writer has included a long quote (displayed in red) to provide information. The section includes only one brief introductory phrase written by the author.

Definition of Greenhouse Gasses . . . . Effects of Greenhouse Gasses . . . . Sources of Greenhouse Gasses There are a number of sources of greenhouse gas: 1 Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Certain human activities, however, add to the levels of most of these naturally occurring gases: Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and wood products are burned. Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills, and the raising of livestock. More information on methane. 2 Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels. Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety of industrial processes. 3 (EPA online at http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/emissions.html) 4   Solutions for Managing Greenhouse Gasses . . . .

What is the author's purpose in presenting the quoted material? Yes, the long quote does discuss sources to greenhouse gasses, but the writer is relying on not only EPA writers' information but also on the arrangement of the information. When do you realize where the information came from? Is there a reason the report author might want to introduce the source within the text of the report?

In a revision of the passage, the cited material has been incorporated into the author's own text to more effectively support the author's purpose in writing.

Definition of Greenhouse Gasses . . . . Effects of Greenhouse Gasses . . . . Sources of Greenhouse Gasses According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, greenhouse gasses are the products of natural and human processes. Interestingly, some types of gasses from both sources are the same, for example, "water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone" (EPA, "Emissions"). The EPA points out that "[c]ertain human activities, however, add to the levels of most of these naturally occurring gases" (EPA, "Emissions," italics mine). 1 Different human processes and activities increase the levels of different naturally occurring gasses. For instance, the EPA reports that processes involved in the production and use of energy sources such as "solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and wood products" increase the levels of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Agricultural, waste management, and industrial activities also contribute to elevated levels of methane and nitrous oxide. Not all greenhouse gasses that result from human activities also occur in nature, however. The EPA lists "[v]ery powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring" such as "hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety of industrial processes" (EPA, "Emissions"). The presence of these gasses is completely man-made. 2 While we shouldn't interfere with the natural processes that release greenhouse gasses, we can develop ways to manage increases in levels of naturally occurring gasses that human activities cause. We can also investigate ways to eliminate the potentially dangerous gasses created by human activity alone. 3 Solutions for Managing Greenhouse Gasses . . . .

Source: (U.S. Environmental Protection agency. " Global Warming - Emissions." July 28 2004. Retrieved July 30, 2004. URL: yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf
/content/Emissions.html)

Do you find the second version of the passage more effective? What are the differences between this version of the passage and the previous version? The author wants to provide information about the sources of greenhouse gasses, but she also wants to stress the different roles that natural and human-made activities have in the production of the gasses. Therefore, the author chooses and arranges the information she cites from the EPA in a way that most effectively focuses readers on that aspect of the issue. The author also introduces the source of the material clearly and early in her passage. Readers may trust this particular source, which lends to the credibility of the report's author.

Here are some tips to help you make similar revisions:

• Make sure to introduce quotes by identifying the source.
  
• Indicate why source material is relevant to your topic. (Perhaps the source is an expert in a particular area; perhaps the source's information sheds light on a particular matter; or perhaps the source provides details on an issue you raise in your text.)
  
• Provide information before or after quotes that makes explicit the connections between the source and your purpose in using the source.
  
• Whenever possible, summarize or paraphrase information rather than including long quotes from sources with little explanation from you.

QUESTIONS ABOUT WORDS

7. My instructor keeps marking "that" and "which" on my papers. What's the difference?

Clauses beginning with which are called non-restrictive. Clauses beginning with that are called restrictive. The easiest way to determine when to use "which" and when to use "that" is to consider the relationship of pieces of information in context. Use "that" when information is essential to the meaning you want to convey. Use "which" when the information is additional, helpful, or incidental. When you use a clause beginning with "which," set the clause off using commas. Do not use commas with "that."

Consider the following examples.

"The safety information sheet that must be included in the manual is ready for pick-up at the print shop." In the first sentence, the information signaled by "that" differentiates a specific safety information sheet—the one that must be included in the manual—from any others. The identification of the information sheet is essential information about what is ready for pick-up at the print shop. "The safety information sheet, which is ready for pick-up at the print shop, must be included in the manual." In the second sentence, the fact that the information sheet is ready for pick-up may be important, but it is additional to the main point of the sentence, which is that the sheet must be included in the manual. "The safety information sheet is ready for pick-up at the print shop, which is on the corner of Main and Elm streets." In the third example sentence, the information about the location of the print shop is additional information that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, which is that the information sheet is ready at the print shop. However, the information might be helpful to someone picking up the information sheet at the printer. "The safety information sheet, which must be included in the manual, is ready for pick-up at the print shop that is on the corner of Main and Elm streets." In the fourth example sentence, the location of the print shop is essential information as signaled by the use of the word "that." It may be that the writer uses several print shops and a person picking up the information sheet needs to identify the correct shop. The fact that the information sheet must be included in the manual may be important, but it is additional information that doesn't alter the meaning of the main message about where the information sheet can be picked up.

Oh! While we're on the subject, use who when referring to people, rather than that or which. For example:

The tree that grew in the middle of the courtyard was removed yesterday.

The man who stood in the middle of the courtyard yesterday was removed.

8. My instructor sometimes says I'm not using the right word, but it was the only word I knew that seems to fit. What do I do?

Several problems contribute to incorrect word choice:

• You may be confusing homonyms (see question 10).
  
• You may be trying to stretch your vocabulary to add variety to your paper. The impulse is a good one, but only if the execution is effective. If you plan to use a word you have heard or read but never used, look the word up in a dictionary. Try Webster's or another dictionary that provides thorough coverage of definitions and word use. Make sure you're using your new word accurately.
  
• You may be relying on a print or electronic thesaurus. A thesaurus is a useful tool, particularly when combined with the use of a dictionary. If the thesaurus you're using is part of your word processing program, make sure to look up any synonyms to ensure you're using a word that means what you intend.
  
• You may be using slang or words that are just too casual for the context. Avoid words such as "OK," "stuff," "cool" (unless you're referring to temperature), and similar colloquialisms.
  
• You may be using words that are too vague, such as "good" or "bad." Evaluations, particularly in technical communication, should be precise. Ask yourself what "good" or "bad" means in the specific situation.
  
• If English is not your first language, you may need additional assistance if you're having problems with articles, plurals, possessives, or other specific areas of vocabulary and grammar.

Reading is the best way to build a good vocabulary. Take the time to find out what words mean and how they're used. Keep a list of words you have misused; find out what word you should have used as well as the correct meaning of any word you misuse. A wrong word in one context might be just the right word some other time.

9. I always use the spell checker, so why do I still have spelling errors?

Spell-checking tools are limited by the vocabulary they include. Sometimes spelling problems result from the use of specialized vocabularies and proper names. Specialized terms must be added to a spell checking program or they are flagged automatically but no alternatives are provided. In such cases, you'll need to check the spelling in a specialized dictionary.

Errors can also occur when a spell-checker automatically corrects spelling as you type, or when you select the wrong word from a list of possible corrections. For example, suppose you mistype the word "recognition" as "reconition," as I did recently. One choice the spell-checker might offer as a correction is recondition, which would certainly change the meaning of the sentence. Again, the mistake would actually be a problem of word choice, but it might be marked as a misspelling.

Another common spelling problem occurs with homonyms, words that sound the same but are spelled differently and mean different things. If you choose the wrong word, you may spell it correctly, but it will be an incorrect word choice, though some editors and instructors may mark the error as one of spelling. (See Question 10.)

10. How can I avoid problems with homonyms?

Your spell-checker won't alert you to spelling errors caused by homonyms because the problem is word choice, not spelling. Your grammar-checker, however, should notify you of such mistakes. Set your word-processing software to check grammar if that tool is included. The most commonly confused homonyms include:

Homonym-like problems can also occur with idiomatic phrases. For example, I have seen people use the phrase "take it for granite," instead of "take it for granted." Possibly, a writer who makes this mistake has heard the phrase but never seen it in print. Make sure to check idioms and consider their meanings.

11. Can I use the word "I" in my paper?

It depends. Consider the context in which you're writing, your audience, the purpose, and the genre.

QUESTIONS ABOUT SENTENCES

12. My instructor keeps marking fragments on my papers, but I just don't see what she means.

Some people write the way they speak. Our speech, particularly conversation, includes fragments quite frequently. Listeners often understand fragments because they occur in a particular context and are accompanied by the body language and facial expressions of the speaker. Reading is, of course, very different. Sentence fragments can be very difficult for readers to understand.

13. Can I start a sentence with "Because…"?

Yes, you can start a sentence with the word because. Some instructors suggest that you don't begin sentences with because since many students make the mistake of writing a dependent clause, failing to finish the sentence with an independent clause. Because the problem occurs frequently, teachers often suggest that students not begin sentences with the word "because."

14. What are some effective ways to introduce quotations?

One of the challenges of using sources is to incorporate sources smoothly into your own texts. You need to accomplish at least two things: (1) ensure that your text reads well and (2) distinguish for readers which information is yours and which information is from sources. The ways that you choose to integrate sources in a text also depends on the purposes, audiences, and conventions that you need to address in your text. For an example, see Question 6.

15. I like the way I write. It's my personal style. And my previous teachers seemed to like it. This instructor wants me to change my personal style. I'm not sure I can write another way.

Style is not just about writers; it's also about readers and contexts. You might have to adjust your style to write for audiences that need technical information. But maybe the best way to think about style is not that you have to change your personal style so much as you should be open to developing a variety of styles for different purposes. Most likely, you already adjust your style—or use different styles—depending on the situation. You certainly don't talk to your professors the same way that you speak to your family or friends. Adjust your approach based on your familiarity with audiences, the content of your message, and the situation.

16. Can I start a sentence with "And…"?

Yes, but writers generally use this strategy very sparingly to draw attention to a particular point. The stylistic reasons for beginning a sentence with "and" don't apply to all types of writing. Consider the context, genre, and audiences for which you're writing.

17. Can I end a sentence with "of"?

In spoken English we frequently end sentences with "of". For example:

John would make an excellent project manager. He was the first person everyone thought of.

However, the word "of" requires a direct object so sentences that end in "of" are not always the most grammatically effective constructions. On the other hand, some "correct" constructions are rather archaic:

John would make an excellent project manager. He was the first person of whom everyone thought.

Try recasting the sentence for a construction that is both grammatical and natural:

John would make an excellent project manager. Everyone thought of him first.

18. My instructor keep crossing out my phrases, "In my opinion..." Why?

It's not that instructors don't want to hear your opinion—in fact most of us very much want you to share your ideas with us. Unless you attribute information or a particular position to a source that you cite in your text, readers assume that what you write is either a fact or your opinion. Thus writing "in my opinion" is unnecessary.

QUESTIONS ABOUT PUNCTUATION

19. Where does a period go if a quotation comes at the end of the sentence?

If you're using an idea or short quote from sources in your sentence, the period goes after the citation. or example:

To more effectively address accessibility issues, some architects and design/build professionals are moving beyond a minimum compliance mentality to adopt universal approaches to design (Anderson et al 1995; Ostroff 2001; Szold 2002).

OR

Ostroff notes her curiosity about why “some buildings by name architects ignore some basic accessibility concerns” (p. 43.8).

If you're using a longer quote that must be block indented, the period goes after the quote and before the citation. For example:

Ostroff points out, for instance, that published articles on buildings by high-profile architects in the professional magazines rarely identify the thoughtful ADA-inspired solutions that make prestige buildings work well for everyone. The silence on these aspects of well-designed facilities leaves uncontested the criticisms of the ADA and how it stifles good design. (p. 43.8)

20. Where does the comma go if I'm putting quotation marks around a phrase?

The comma goes inside the quotation marks.

21. I know that CS means "comma splice," but what's a comma splice?

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses that should be two sentences are separated instead by a comma. Actually, in the case of a comma splice, the two clauses are not so much separated as incorrectly joined, hence the term "splice." See Sentences > 2.3 Comma Splices for more information.

22. What are run-on sentences, and how do I get rid of them?

Run-on sentences are series of clauses that should be two or more sentences. Generally, the punctuation in run-on sentences is incorrect. Run-on sentences are often very difficult for readers to decipher. See Sentences > 2.4 Run-on Sentences for more information.

Grammar-checkers in software programs will often alert you to run-ons. If you tend to have difficulty with run-ons, make sure to look for potential problems during one of your editing passes. Check any sentence that is much longer than others in a paragraph. Read it out loud slowly. Does it seem too long? Review the clauses in the sentence. How many are independent? Is the sentence punctuated correctly?

23. What the difference between a hyphen, an en dash, and an em-dash? When do I use each one?

A hyphen is a very short dash used in compound words. An en dash is longer than a hyphen (about one and a half times longer than a hyphen) and is used for situations such as separating two numerical elements in a range. An em dash, or long dash (about twice as long as a hyphen), is generally used to set off a break in an idea or additional information, such as several short examples. For instance:

The handbook discusses three types of dashes—hyphens, en dashes, and em dashes—in the section on punctuation.

Most word processing programs include distinct characters for hyphens and both the en and em dashes. Use the appropriate characters for each and avoid using two hyphens instead of an en or em dash.

24. I sometimes use quotation marks to indicate that a point is really important. Is this wrong?

Quotation marks are generally used to indicate the use of a source, a word or phrase of another author.

If you need to signal readers about something important—key terms, for example—using a style for emphasis is preferable. Choose bold or italics for that purpose and use the emphasis style consistently.

If you use quotation marks to signal that you are using a word or phrase in a way that flouts its conventional use, do so sparingly. For example:

Disabled people have experienced stigmatization by, discrimination in, and exclusion from the larger society in part because of attitudes toward disability and disabled people that have been expressed through not only popular media, but also through the “legitimate” discourses of medicine, law, charity, and social sciences among others.

25. I'm using a quotation that includes a quotation. What punctuation do I use?

Use double quotation marks for the material you are quoting and single quotation marks for material your source in quoting. Here's an example in which the author quotes a source, Schryer, who in turn quotes a second source, Bourdieu. Note the single quotes within the double quotes that indicate where the author's first source quotes the second source. Also notice the placement of commas and end punctuation.

Schryer (2000), following Bourdieu, adopts the terms field, as “‘a structured space of positions in which the positions and their interrelations are determined by the distribution of different kinds of resources or capital,’” in which “agents…are in the constant process of attempting to distinguish their field from other markets and thus acquire more recognition, or symbolic power, and a better position vis-à-vis other fields” (p. 457).

In addition, make sure to use any additional punctuation from your source's citation as it is used in your source.

QUESTIONS ABOUT CAPITALIZATION

26. I see a lot of writing that capitalizes words that are important. But my instructor says a lot of my capitalization is unnecessary. How do I know what to capitalize?

A shift from lower-case to capitals is a signal for readers to interpret a word in a particular way—as the first word in a sentence, as a proper name or noun, or as a title, etc. Thus, use capitalization only when necessary. Any capitalization that is not required only adds to readers' cognitive loads. Check the style guide you're using or follow the guidelines in this handbook for capitalization.

27. In e-mail I like to omit all capitalization because I can type faster and it's my personal style. It that a problem?

When you're e-mailing your best friend or your mom, your "personal style" is probably not a problem. When you're sending e-mail to anyone in a professional setting, including contacts in your own company or organization, follow all the appropriate rules for standard professional grammar and mechanics. Punctuation, capitalization, and other grammatical elements help readers understand your message.

In addition, your writing, even your briefest e-mails, reflects your professional image. Few will complain that your e-mail is too correct, but some people may be annoyed—even offended—if your e-mail is too casual or, worse, unclear.

Also keep in mind that e-mail in a professional setting may be considered semi-public and property of the organization. If your e-mail ends up as part of a chain of communication about an issue, you'll want to make sure that it is always clear, correct, and professional.

28. What do I capitalize in a title of the report I'm writing?

In general, capitalize all words except articles (the, a, an, etc.), and prepositions and conjunctions (such as and, to, for, about, by, etc.). Always capitalize the first word in the title no matter what type of word it is. If the title has two parts separated by a colon, capitalize the second part the same way. For example:

The Long and Short of Grammar: A Study in Common Errors

If you are following a specific style guide, for instance MLA, APA, or corporate style sheet, look up and follow the rules provided by the guide.

29. What do I capitalize in a title in the text of my paper?

Follow the capitalization used in the original publication. Again, check the rules provided in any style guide you're using.

30. Some words seems to be capitalized at some times and not at others. How do I know when to capitalize them?

Capitalization is determined by the ways that words are used. When a word is part of a proper noun phrase, it is generally capitalized. the same word used generically is not.

Here are a few examples:

I live in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The state I live in is Massachusetts. In the first example, commonwealth is capitalized because it is part of the official name of the state of Massachusetts. On the other hand, in the second sentence state is not capitalized because is used generically. The writer could just as easily written, "The state I live in is chaos." My technical communication is taught by Professor Burnett. My professor in technical communication is Rebecca Burnett. In the second example, professor is capitalized in the first sentence and not the second. In the first sentence, professor is used as part of the person's name. I am majoring in engineering. My degree will be awarded by the College of Engineering. In the third example, engineering is not capitalized when it is used generically to identify a field of study. When it is part of the name of a school, it is capitalized. I am a double major in English and Spanish. My degree will be awarded jointly by the Department of English and the Department of Spanish. In the final example, English and Spanish are capitalized in both sentences because the names of languages are always proper nouns.

For additional information, review the information on capitalization in this handbook.

QUESTIONS ABOUT NUMBERS

31. How do I know when to use the numeral and when to use the word for the number?

Generally, use words for numbers one through nine and figures for all other numbers, both cardinal and ordinal. Review the Numbers section of this handbook for more information. If you have been asked to use a particular style manual, check the manual guidelines on using numbers.

32. I need to start a sentence with a number. Should I spell it out or use the numeral?

Spell out the number unless it is very long. If the number is very long, try rewording the sentence so the number doesn't occur as the first word. See Numbers > 5.2 Begin Sentences with, for more information.

33. When I'm using a fraction, should I use the numeral or the word?

Use figures when a fraction is part of a larger number:

33 ¼ miles; 7 ½ inches

Write out the words when fractions alone are used:

five-eighths of the pie; one-fifth of the population; two-thirds of the class; half of the papers; a third of the cake

34. If I use the word for a fraction, should it be hyphenated?

Include hyphens for fractions that are compound words, as illustrated in question 33.

35. When I'm using a measurement should I use the numeral or the word for the number? Should I use the symbol or the word for the unit of measure?

Use numerals for measurements:

15 miles; 2 yards; 100 pixels; 12 degrees

Context determines whether you should write out the unit of measure or use symbols. In general, write out the unit of measure. However, if the text you're working on makes extensive use of specific types of measurements you may choose to use symbols. Make sure to include a key to symbols if necessary for your audience. Before choosing symbols, check the requirements of any style manual or style guide that you are following.

QUESTIONS ABOUT DOCUMENTATION

36. How do I know what to document? My instructor says I don't need to document common knowledge, but what's common knowledge?

Common knowledge includes information such as historical dates, places, occupancies, names, and often some level of detail about events. For example, it is common knowledge that the space shuttle Challenger exploded in February of 1986. Many people saw it happen; the event was quickly reported in thousands of newspapers and on television all over the world.

The cause of the explosion was not common knowledge at the time. In fact a government commission was formed to investigate the matter. Over the years, the facts that the o-rings seals and the cold temperature of the day contributed to the disaster have become common knowledge to anyone following the story. Again, the wide reporting of these facts led to their inclusion in "common knowledge." However, to understand more about the specifics of the problems with the o-rings, as well as other contributing factors, you would most likely have to read the commission's report, archived documents on NASA's Web site, or possibly journal articles written by scholars who investigated the event. The information you find in these sources is available to anyone who wants to read them, but it is not considered common knowledge. You would cite the sources when discussing the details you learned during your research.

The notion of common knowledge becomes even more challenging when we think in terms of professions and disciplines. What is common knowledge to an architect, for example, is probably not common knowledge to you (unless you're an architect). For instance, many architects may know off the top of their heads who built the Chrysler Building in New York because learning such information was part of their education and training. I'd have to look it up. One useful rule of thumb is that if you do use a source for information, you should cite it.

For more information about common knowledge, visit a good resource provided by Princeton University.

37. What's the difference between paraphrasing information from a source and plagiarizing? In other words, how much do I have to change a text so it's not plagiarism?

When a writer uses exact words from an original text without indicating that the phrases are quotes, the writer has plagiarized. Sometimes writers will try to rephrase the original by making a few minor changes in the wording. However, when portions of the wording and/or the grammatical structure in the paraphrase are the same as the original, the writer has plagiarized.

The following examples include an original passage from a source, a paraphrase that plagiarizes the original, and a paraphrase that does not plagiarize the original.

Original Text. We are all familiar with the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. Consider, for example, what happens if a layer of water is carefully laid on top of a lower-density liquid, such as alcohol, in a container. The heavier water will find its way through the lighter alcohol to the bottom of the container if the container is disturbed. The mechanism that initiates this fluid interchange is the Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) instability: fingers of the heavier fluid start poking into the lighter liquid, and bubbles of the lighter fluid rise through the heavier fluid until eventually the interchange is complete. Source: "Rayleigh-Taylor Instability and ICF." (July 1992). Energy and Technology Review. Livermore, CA: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

Place your mouse on the linked text to read why the following passage plagiarizes the original:

Plagiarized Text. (1) In order to understand the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, imagine that a layer of water is carefully laid on top of a lower-density liquid, such as alcohol, in a container. (2) If the container is disturbed, the heavier water can find its way through the lighter alcohol to the bottom of the container. (3) Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) instability is is the mechanism that initiates this fluid interchange in which fingers of the heavier fluid start poking into the lighter liquid. Bubbles of the lighter fluid rise through the heavier fluid. Eventually the interchange is complete.

In the following, the writer introduces the article, paraphrases parts of the original, and quotes the original where the exact words from the source are most effective.

Paraphrased & Quoted Effectively. An article in Energy and Technology Review explains the fluid exchange known as the Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) instability. When "a layer of water is carefully laid on top of a lower-density liquid, such as alcohol, in a container . . . [t]he heavier water will find its way through the lighter alcohol to the bottom of the container if the container is disturbed" (p. 16). When the mechanism of the RT instability begins, "fingers" of the water, which is heavier, move into the alcohol; simultaneously, bubbles of alcohol rise through the water.

You can avoid plagiarizing by putting ideas in your own words. Summarize longer passages from original texts to give the gist of ideas; quote your source when the wording from the original is the best way to convey specific information.

38. When I'm putting a citation in my paper, how do I indicate the date and page?

The format depends on the documentation style you're using. Always check the manual. We've included a number of examples based on the Chicago Manual of Style. See Documentation > 6.3 Documentation Formats for more information.

39. What's the difference between documentation formats—Chicago, APA, MLA, GPO? How many different formats are there, anyway?

Several widely used documentation styles include the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), the Modern Language Association Style (MLA), the American Psychological Association Style (APA). GPO is the style used by the Government Printing Office. There are a number of other style manuals. However, different disciplines and professions use different style manuals that cover writing conventions and documentation styles.The differences among style manuals reflect the needs of the audience for particular types of information. For example, APA citations within the text include publication dates while MLA citations do not. APA style is used by social science disciplines that rely on field research. In these contexts, the recency of data is very important. The Chicago Manual of style include two different types of documentation that treat dates differently. In addition, the CMS offers extensive information on grammar, punctuation, and other stylistic and mechanical aspects of writing. Other style manuals focus more specifically on particular disciplinary requirements.

In addition to style manuals, individual companies and organizations usually have their own guidelines for preparing various texts and identity standards, which provide information on the uses of logos, trademarks, colors, and other visual representations.

Always determine which style manuals and other guidelines apply to any materials you prepare.

40. Why do electronic formats for documentation keep changing?

The growth in the types of online resources available has been rapid and extensive in recent years. When new types of formats and media for conveying information appear, style guide writers have to consider the most practical ways to document new types of sources and the ways that new forms of documentation can be constructed to be consistent with existing forms.

Consequently, we've learned more about some of the problems with online information. The most challenging problem is that information on Web sites often disappears, changes, or is moved. For example, a document that was available on a web site two years ago may have been deleted, or it may be in a new location on the web site because the site has been re-designed or because older information has been archived. In addition, some newspapers and magazines allow readers free access to recent articles, but charge for access to archived articles. Thus, the source you found and cited yesterday may not be available at the same URL next month. Many copies of the same print journals and books are available in multiple locations, which is also true for electronic resources on disc (for example, Wilson's online databases found in many university libraries) whereas Web sites are generally served from one location to many users. For these reasons, including URLs and dates retrieved (in addition to titles and dates published) has become an important convention in citing online resources.

The medium continues to change, so expect more changed in documenting its sources.

41. When can I use et al to indicate multiple authors?

According to the Chicago Manual of Style, you can use et al when a source includes three or more authors.

42. I looked up this article online. It doesn't have page numbers, so what do I do?

If you found the article using a library database that offers full-text electronic versions of documents that also appear in print, the article may be available as a .pdf file as well as an .html document. The .pdf files are generally the same as the print versions of the material and include the original page numbers. If a .pdf is not available, you may need to locate the print version. If you're using an online-only source, the URL is sufficient. Each page of a multi-page hypertext article will have a unique URL.

43. My Web site source doesn't seem to have an author or a title or even a date, so what do I do?

Always follow the citation format recommended by the style guide you're using. Include all the information that is available. See Documentation > 6.3 Documentation Formats, page 2 of 2 for more information about citing electronic sources.

However, if the Web site doesn't have a title, author, or date, do you really want to use it? How credible is the information? Can you find the same or similar information in another source? Get some confirmation; the unidentified source may not be your best choice for a source.

44. I didn't really read the book, but I got the quotation from a reprinted sample page on a book store web site. How do I cite it?

The short answer is to cite the source as you would any other online source; in this case, you'd include the full citation for the section of the book available on line, including the range of page numbers, as well as the information about the electronic resource including the URL and date retrieved.

The long answer is to avoid this type of short-cut. Our belief is that such practices border on academic dishonesty. When you use a source, you are suggesting that you are somewhat familiar with the text. In addition, if you haven't actually read the material, you may be quoting out of context.